BATTLING SHADOWS: ANALYSING THE TALIBAN-TTP NEXUS IN POST-2021 SECURITY DYNAMICS USING NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING (NLP)

Scott N. Romaniuk; Mostafa Amini; Anwar Ouassini; László Csicsmann

doi:10.33102/mjsl.vol13no2.1050

Authors

Scott N. Romaniuk Corvinus University of Budapest, Corvinus Institute for Advanced Studies (CIAS), Corvinus Centre for Cotemporary Asia Studies, Hungary https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5081-2515
Mostafa Amini Harvard Divinity School, Harvard University, United States
Anwar Ouassini Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice, Delaware State University, United States
László Csicsmann Corvinus University of Budapest, Corvinus Institute for Advanced Studies (CIAS), Corvinus Centre for Cotemporary Asia Studies, Hungary

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.33102/mjsl.vol13no2.1050

Keywords:

Afghanistan, counter-terrorism, Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), pashtun, religious-ideological rhetoric, Taliban, Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP)

Abstract

This study examines the evolving relationship between Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and the Afghan Taliban within the broader context of Pakistan’s counter-terrorism efforts and regional security environment following the United States (U.S.) withdrawal from Afghanistan in 2021. Adopting a mixed-methods approach, the research draws on a diverse corpus of news reports, official statements, and scholarly sources in English, Urdu, and Farsi. Our analysis focuses on the period post-September 1, 2021, using data from the Nexis Uni academic database. Employing Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), the study analyses 2,889 articles to identify thematic patterns and discursive trends. A customised analytical framework categorises the findings into four key components: motivational, religious, ethno-racial, and administrative. By mapping these dimensions, the study offers insights into the factors shaping Pakistan’s strategic posture and decision-making. This research contributes to the growing body of literature on terrorism, counter-terrorism, and regional security in South and Central Asia, with a particular focus on the post-2021 dynamics between Pakistan, the Afghan Taliban, and the TTP.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Adil, A. (2025, January 6). “India condemns Pakistan’s airstrikes in Afghanistan”. Anadolu Ajansı. http://aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/india-condemns-pakistans-airstrikes-in-afghanistan/3442735

Afzal, U., & Mahmood, T. (2013, December). Using predictive analytics to forecast drone attacks in Pakistan. In Proceedings of the 2013 5th International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies (pp. 1–6). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6732785

Akhtar, S., & Ahmed, Z. S. (2023). Understanding the resurgence of the Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, 16(3), 285–306.

Akins, H. (2017, November). “FATA and the frontier crimes regulation in Pakistan: The enduring legacy of British colonialism”. The Howard H. Baker Jr. Center for Public Policy. https://baker.utk.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/FATA.Frontier.Crimes.Regulation.Pakistan.Enduring.Legacy.British.Colonialism.pdf

Al Arabiya. (2022a, March 30). “Pakistani Taliban announce Ramadan offensive against security forces”. Al Arabiya. http://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/03/30/Pakistani-Taliban-announce-Ramadan-offensive-against-security-forces

Al Arabiya. (2022b, May 15). “North Waziristan, suicide attack, 6 martyred including 3 soldier”. Al Arabiya. https://urdu.alarabiya.net/pakistan/2022/05/15/شمالی-وزیرستان،-خود-کش-حملہ،-3-فوجی-جوانوں-سمیت-6-شہید

Al Jazeera. (2024, June 30). “Pakistan to start second phase of Afghan deportations”. Al Jazeera. https://aljazeera.com/news/2024/6/30/pakistan-to-start-second-phase-of-afghan-deportations

Al Jazeera. (2025, March 4). “Bombing kills at least 12 in northwest Pakistan, police say”. Al Jazeera. http://aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/4/double-suicide-bombing-kills-at-least-9-in-north-west-pakistan-police

Ali, S., Verma, R., & Ghous, G. (2025). Unravelling the knot: Understanding why the Taliban are unwilling to act against the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan? Asian Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, 19(1), 77–92.

Amnesty International. (2024, April 4). “Pakistan: Government must stop ignoring global calls to halt unlawful deportation of Afghan refugees”. Amnesty International. https://amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/04/pakistan-government-must-halt-deportation-of-afghan-refugees/

Atlantic Council. (2024, March 18). “Experts react: Pakistan just carried out airstrikes on Afghanistan. What’s next?”. Atlantic Council. https://atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/experts-react-pakistan-just-carried-out-airstrikes-on-afghanistan-whats-next/

Bakhsh, N., Rab, A., & Faiz, J. (2024). Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan’s (TTP) threat spectrum: Assessing Pakistan’s counter-terrorism policy in post-US withdrawal era. Journal of Asian Development Studies, 13(2), 169–179.

Basit, A. (2022, February 7). “Why the Taliban ignores Pakistan’s demands to take action against the TTP”. TRT World. https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/why-the-taliban-ignores-pakistan-s-demands-to-take-action-against-the-ttp-54507

Biswas, S. (2025, January 15). “Why India is reaching out to the Taliban now”. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cp8ke9e27dxo

Bobkin, N. N. (2022). The end of the war in Afghanistan: The defeat of the United States and the consequences for regional security. Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 92, S331–S339. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1019331622100045

Bose, S. K. (2025, May 15). “India’s UN push to get terror tag for group behind Pahalgam attack”. NDTV. http://ndtv.com/india-news/pahalgam-terror-attack-operation-sindoor-indias-un-push-to-get-terror-tag-for-group-behind-pahalgam-attack-8417810

Centre on Armed Groups. (2024, August). “Drivers of ISKP recruitment in Afghanistan”. Centre on Armed Groups. https://armedgroupscentre.org/reports-and-articles/iskp-recruitment

CGRS. (2024, June 25). “Security situation”. Office of the Commissioner General for Refugees and Stateless Persons. https://www.cgrs.be/en/country-information/security-situation-0

Cogan, M. S., & Gill, D. M. L. (2022). Legitimacy and international development in a Taliban-dominated Afghanistan. Journal of Indo-Pacific Affairs, 5(1), 72–80.

Copeland, S. (2023, October 27). “Narratives, techniques, and pathways: How the Islamic State Khorasan Province recruits Afghan students online”. Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats. https://crestresearch.ac.uk/resources/how-the-islamic-state-khorasan-province-recruits-afghan-students-online/

CPEC Authority. (2023). “Long term plan for China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (2017–2030)”. Ministry of Planning, Development, and Reform, Government of Pakistan. https://cpec.gov.pk/long-term-plan-cpec

CRS. (2024, April 2). “Terrorist groups in Afghanistan”. Congressional Research Service. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10604

Daily Pakistan. (2024, March 18). “Order to resume operations in Punjab to deport illegal Afghans”. Daily Pakistan. https://dailypakistan.com.pk/18-Mar-2024/1691523

Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs Office – Afghanistan. (2023, August 31). “Tweet”. X (formerly Twitter). https://x.com/FDPM_AFG/status/1697180742495662321?s=20

Esch, J. (2010). Legitimizing the “war on terror”: Political myth in official-level rhetoric. Political Psychology, 31(3), 357–391.

Fazl-e-Haider, S. (2022a, April 22). “Pakistani Taliban launches spring offensive amid political turmoil in Islamabad”. Terrorism Monitor, Jamestown Foundation. http://jamestown.org/program/pakistani-taliban-launches-spring-offensive-amid-political-turmoil-in-islamabad/

Fazl-e-Haider, S. (2022b, May 2). “Drones do the talking in Pakistan’s anti-terror offensive”. Lowy Institute. https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/drones-do-talking-pakistan-s-anti-terror-offensive

Fazl-e-Haider, S. (2022c, October 21). “Pakistani separatists turn their sights on China”. Lowy Institute. https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/pakistani-separatists-turn-their-sights-china

France24. (2024, March 18). “Several killed in Pakistani air strikes on Afghanistan, says Kabul”. France24. https://france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20240318-several-killed-in-pakistani-air-strikes-on-afghanistan-says-kabul

Greek City Times. (2022, December 20). “Balochistan: Will attack on Chinese nationals end Beijing’s game in Afghanistan?”. Greek City Times. https://greekcitytimes.com/2022/12/20/balochistan-beijing-afghanistan/

Gul, A. (2022, April 18). “Islamic State Khorasan claims rocket attack on Uzbekistan”. VOA. https://www.voanews.com/a/islamic-state-khorasan-claims-rocket-attack-on-uzbekistan-/6534866.html

Gul, A. (2023, August 6). “Afghan Taliban chief deems cross-border attacks on Pakistan forbidden”. VOA. https://www.voanews.com/a/afghan-taliban-chief-deems-cross-border-attacks-on-pakistan-forbidden-/7213760.html

Gul, A. (2024, February 1). “UN: Al-Qaida, Afghan Taliban assist TTP with attacks in Pakistan”. VOA. http://voanews.com/a/un-al-qaida-afghan-taliban-assist-ttp-with-attacks-in-pakistan-/7466250.html

Hakeem, M. J., & Sulphey, M. M. (2023). The role of civil society in India and Afghanistan: A comparative perspective. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 60(2), 926-946.

Hamidy, N. (2024, September 17). “Mass deportation and detention of Afghan refugees from Pakistan: Focusing on the situation of women”. Center for Migration Studies. https://cmsny.org/mass-deportation-detention-afghan-refugees-from-pakistan-focusing-on-women-091724/

Hopkins, B. D. (2015). The frontier crimes regulation and frontier governmentality. The Journal of Asian Studies, 74(2), 369–389.

Independent Urdu. (2025, March 5). “Jaish al-Fursan’s second attack in Bannu, what do we know about the organization?”. Independent Urdu. https://www.independenturdu.com/node/178788

India Narrative. (2023, July 22). “Setback to Pak, Afghan Taliban govt refuses action against TTP”. India Narrative. https://www.indianarrative.com/world-news/setback-to-pak-afghan-taliban-govt-refuses-action-against-ttp-148234.html

Institute for Economics and Peace. (2023). “Global terrorism index 2023”. https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/GTI-2023-web.pdf

Institute for Economics and Peace. (2025). “Global terrorism index 2025”. https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Global-Terrorism-Index-2025.pdf

International Crisis Group. (2022, August 12). “Afghanistan’s security challenges under the Taliban”. International Crisis Group. https://crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/afghanistan/afghanistans-security-challenges-under-taliban

Iqbal, A. (2022, February 9). “TTP still active with up to 5,000 fighters: UN”. DAWN. https://www.dawn.com/news/1674089

Iqbal, M. Z. (2010). An appraisal of the Afghanistan-Pakistan strategy to counter terrorism. The US Army War College Quarterly: Parameters, 40(2), 1–10. https://press.armywarcollege.edu/parameters/vol40/iss2/9

Jadoon, A. (2021). “The evolution and potential resurgence of the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan”. United States Institute of Peace. https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2021-05/sr_494-the_evolution_and_potential_resurgence_of_the_tehrik_i_taliban_pakistan.pdf

Jadoon, A. (2025, March 7). “Decoding Pakistan’s 2024 airstrikes in Afghanistan”. War on the Rocks. http://warontherocks.com/2025/03/decoding-pakistans-2024-airstrikes-in-afghanistan/

Jadoon, A., Sayed, A., Webber, L., & Valle, R. (2024). “From Tajikistan to Moscow and Iran: Mapping the local and transnational threat of Islamic State Khorasan”. CTC Sentinel. https://ctc.westpoint.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ctc-sentinel-052024_cover-article.pdf

Jamal, U. (2024, June 25). “Pakistan launches new counterterrorism operation”. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2024/06/pakistan-launches-new-counterterrorism-operation/

Jelodar, H., Wang, Y., Yuan, C., Feng, X., Jiang, X., Li, Y., & Zhao, L. (2019). Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) and topic modeling: Models, applications, a survey. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 78(11), 15169–15211.

Joscelyn, T. (2021, August). “Pakistani Taliban’s emir renews allegiance to Afghan Taliban”. Long War Journal. https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2021/08/pakistani-talibans-emir-renews-allegiance-to-afghan-taliban.php

KabulNow. (2023a, April). “Chinese company offers $10 billion to the Taliban for access to lithium deposits”. KabulNow. https://kabulnow.com/2023/04/chinese-company-offers-10-billion-to-the-taliban-for-access-to-lithium-deposits/

KabulNow. (2023b, August). “Taliban signs $6.5 billion mining contracts with local and foreign companies”. KabulNow. https://kabulnow.com/2023/08/taliban-signs-6-5-billion-mining-contracts-with-local-and-foreign-companies/

Kaleem, M., & Iqbal, S. (2023). Understanding the nexus between Afghan Taliban and TTP: Challenges and opportunities for Pakistan. Global Foreign Policies Review, 6(4), 21–36.

Kapur, R. (2022, January 6). “The persistent ISKP threat to Afghanistan: On China’s doorstep”. Middle East Institute. https://mei.edu/publications/persistent-iskp-threat-afghanistan-chinas-doorstep

Kaura, V. (2022, March 24). “China draws closer to the Taliban as regional foreign ministers prepare to meet in Beijing”. Middle East Institute. http://mei.edu/publications/china-draws-closer-taliban-regional-foreign-ministers-prepare-meet-beijing

Kavrakis, K. (2023). Identity and ideology through the frames of Al Qaeda and Islamic State. Terrorism and Political Violence, 35(5), 1235–1252. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2021.1998425

Khan, A. B. (2024, August 19). “Three years of Taliban rule in Afghanistan”. Independent Urdu. https://www.independenturdu.com/node/175374

Khan, M. K., & Wei, L. (2016). When friends turned into enemies: The role of the national state vs. Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) in the war against terrorism in Pakistan. The Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, 28(4), 597–626.

Khattak, D. (2024, July 25). “New extremist groups – at least in name – enter Pakistan’s militant scene”. RFE/RL. https://www.rferl.org/a/pakistan-ttp-militants-taliban-afghanistan/33050488.html

Latif, A. (2022, November 29). “Pakistani Taliban end cease-fire with government, order new attacks”. Anadolu Ajansı. https://aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/pakistani-taliban-end-cease-fire-with-government-order-new-attacks/2750572#

Maryam, H. (2022, April 27). “Deadly border attacks test Pakistani gov’t relations with Taliban”. Al Jazeera. https://aljazeera.com/news/2022/4/27/could-pakistan-airstrike-affect-afghanistan-relationship

Middle East Media Research Institute. (2022, September 9). “Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) greets Afghan Taliban on first anniversary of the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan”. MEMRI. https://www.memri.org/jttm/tehreek-e-taliban-pakistan-ttp-greets-afghan-taliban-first-anniversary-withdrawal-us-troops

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Pakistan. (2024, March 18). “Operation against terrorist sanctuaries of TTP”. Government of Pakistan. https://mofa.gov.pk/press-releases/operation-against-terrorist-sanctuaries-of-ttp

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China. (2023, April 12). “China’s position on the Afghan issue”. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, China. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/zyxw/202304/t20230412_11057782.shtml

Mir, A. (2023, November 16). “In a major rift, Pakistan ramps up pressure on the Taliban”. United States Institute of Peace. https://usip.org/publications/2023/11/major-rift-pakistan-ramps-pressure-taliban

Mushtuq, M. S., & Shad, M. R. (2022). Belt and Road Initiative in South Asia: Security imperatives. Strategic Studies, 42(2), 72–86.

News On Air. (2024, March 18). “Pakistani airstrikes in Afghanistan kill at least 8 people, says Afghanistan”. News On Air. https://newsonair.gov.in/pakistani-airstrikes-in-afghanistan-kill-at-least-8-people-says-afghanistan/

News18. (2025, January 15). “What’s India’s policy of ‘cautious’ negotiation with Taliban, how have ties changed since 2021?”. News18. http://news18.com/explainers/whats-indias-policy-of-cautious-negotiation-with-taliban-how-have-ties-changed-since-2021-9189618.html

Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. F. (2002, April). “Islam & the West: Testing the clash of civilizations thesis”. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.316506

O’Donnell, L. (2022, December 20). “The Taliban can’t win friends or influence people”. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/12/20/taliban-afghanistan-attacks-china-pakistan-economy-diplomacy/

O’Donnell, L. (2024, March 22). “Al Qaeda is back—and thriving—in Afghanistan”. Foreign Policy. http://foreignpolicy.com/2024/03/22/al-qaeda-taliban-afghanistan-gold-mining/

Ouassini, A., Amini, M., & Ouassini, N. (2022). #ChinaMustExplain: Global tweets, COVID-19, and anti-black racism in China. Review of Black Political Economy, 49(1), 61–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/003464462199268

Radfar, R. (2022, September 23). “One year after the Taliban takeover: Regional threats and impacts”. South Asian Voices. https://southasianvoices.org/طالبان-کے-قبضے-کے-ایک-برس-بعد-علاقائی-خ/

Rahman, A. (2025, April 11). “Pakistan continues forced displacement of thousands of Afghan refugees”. People’s Dispatch. http://peoplesdispatch.org/2025/04/11/pakistan-continues-forced-displacement-of-thousands-of-afghan-refugees/

Raja, F. A. (2024, February 3). “TTP’s new strategy”. The Express Tribune. https://tribune.com.pk/story/2455291/ttps-new-strategy

Ramachandran, S. (2022, August 31). “ISKP attacks in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan”. The Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst. https://cacianalyst.org/publications/analytical-articles/item/13731-iskp-attacks-in-uzbekistan-and-tajikistan.html

Rehman, Z. U. (2024, July 30). “What makes Azm-i-Istehkam different from operations past?”. DAWN. http://dawn.com/news/1848738

Robertson, N., & Mehsud, S. (2021, April 30). “Al Qaeda promises ‘war on all fronts’ against America as Biden pulls out of Afghanistan”. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2021/04/30/asia/al-qaeda-afghanistan-biden-intl-cmd/index.html

Roggio, B. (2022, May 18). “Afghan Taliban brokers ceasefire between Pakistan and TTP”. FDD’s Long War Journal. https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2022/05/afghan-taliban-brokers-ceasefire-between-pakistan-and-ttp.php

Roggio, B. (2025, February 13). “Pakistani and Tajik Taliban open training camps in Afghanistan”. Long War Journal. https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2025/02/pakistani-and-tajik-taliban-open-training-camps-in-afghanistan.php

SATP. (2024). “Number of terrorism related incidents year wise”. South Asia Terrorism Portal. https://satp.org/datasheet-terrorist-attack/incidents-data/pakistan

Sayed, A. (2021, December 21). “The evolution and future of Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan”. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2021/12/the-evolution-and-future-of-tehrik-e-taliban-pakistan?lang=en

Sayed, A. (2023, August 21). “Pakistani Taliban broaden support among Baloch, merge with separatist groups”. Terrorism Monitor. https://jamestown.org/program/pakistani-taliban-broaden-support-among-baloch-merge-with-separatist-groups/

Sayed, A., & Jadoon, A. (2021, May 16). “Understanding Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan’s unrelenting posture”. Program on Extremism at George Washington University. https://extremism.gwu.edu/tehrik-e-taliban-pakistan-posture

Schaeffer, K. (2022, August 17). “A year later, a look back at public opinion about the U.S. military exit from Afghanistan”. Pew Research Center. http://pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/08/17/a-year-later-a-look-back-at-public-opinion-about-the-u-s-military-exit-from-afghanistan/

SCMP. (2022, December 12). “Isis claims deadly attack on Kabul hotel popular with Chinese”. South China Morning Post. https://scmp.com/news/asia/south-asia/article/3203047/unidentified-gunmen-attack-china-hotel-afghan-capital-two-people-injured-escape-jump-windows

Shah, M. (2021, July 2). “How the US and allied forces failed Afghanistan – A security perspective”. South Asia Times. https://satimes.tv/how-the-us-and-allied-forces-failed-afghanistan-a-security-perspective/

Shah, S. S. H., Mahmood, A., & Kamran, M. (2024). “Resurrection of Tehrik‐e‐Taliban Pakistan Amidst Afghan Regime’s Indifference: Threats to Intersectional Security Strands in the Region”. Social Inclusion. https://www.cogitatiopress.com/socialinclusion/article/download/8598/4037

Shaikh, F. (2025, May 9). “Rising tensions resurface Pakistan’s credibility problem – and India’s backfiring policy on Kashmir”. Chatham House. http://chathamhouse.org/2025/05/rising-tensions-resurface-pakistans-credibility-problem-and-indias-backfiring-policy

Shinwari, N. (2024, May 27). “Islamic Emirate Denies Pakistani Claims of TTP Presence in Afghanistan”. Tolo News. https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-188983

Siddique, A. (2022, April 21). “Pakistan’s deadly air strikes inside Afghanistan increase tensions with Taliban”. RFE/RL. https://www.rferl.org/a/pakistan-air-strikes-afghanistan-taliban-relations/31814993.html

Singh, R. (2023, November 16). “Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan: Unravelling Pakistan’s enduring threat”. Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Anyses. https://demo.idsa.in/publisher/tehreek-e-taliban-pakistan-unravelling-pakistans-enduring-threat/

Tahir, S., & Jadoon, A. (2025, May). Leaders, fighters, and suicide attackers: Insights on TTP militant mobility through commemorative records, 2006–2025. CTC Sentinel, 18(5), 25–33.

Taylor, D. M., & Louis, W. (2004). Terrorism and the quest for identity. In F. M. Moghaddam & A. J. Marsella (Eds.), Understanding terrorism: Psychosocial roots, consequences and interventions (pp. 169–185). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10621-008

The Hindu. (2021, November 28). “Pakistan violating other nations’ sovereignty, Afghanistan tells U.N”. The Hindu. https://thehindu.com/news/international/Pakistan-violating-other-nations%E2%80%99-sovereignty-Afghanistan-tells-U.N./article60562950.ece

The Hindu. (2025, March 5). “Pakistanis mourn 18 people, including 5 soldiers, killed in a twin suicide bombing at an army base”. The Hindu. https://thehindu.com/news/international/pakistanis-mourn-18-people-including-5-soldiers-killed-in-a-twin-suicide-bombing-at-an-army-base/article69294959.ece

The Khorasan Diary. (2023). “Pakistan blames Hafiz Gul Bahadur group for Bannu attack, vows action against terrorist threats from Afghanistan”. The Khorasan Diary. http://thekhorasandiary.com/en/2024/07/15/Pakistan-blames-Hafiz-Gul-Bahadur-Group

U.S. DoS. (2020a, February 29). “Agreement for bringing peace to Afghanistan between the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan which is not recognized by the United States as a state and is known as the Taliban and the United States of America”. U.S. Department of State. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Agreement-For-Bringing-Peace-to-Afghanistan-02.29.20.pdf

U.S. DoS. (2020b, February 29). “Joint declaration between the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and the United States of America for bringing peace to Afghanistan”. U.S. Department of State. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/02.29.20-US-Afghanistan-Joint-Declaration.pdf

UN News. (2025, April 1). “Pakistan: Nearly one million Afghan refugees deported voluntarily or forcibly”. United Nations. http://news.un.org/ur/story/2025/04/16711

UNHCR. (2025, April). “Operation update – Afghanistan”. UN Refugee Agency. https://reliefweb.int/attachments/ec5b637b-c1e7-5e57-a69b-baa4f032dba6/Operational%20Update%20-%20April%202025.pdf

UNSC. (2023, June 1). “Letter dated 23 May 2023 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1988 (2011) addressed to the President of the Security Council”. United Nations Security Council. http://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n23/125/36/pdf/n2312536.pdf

UNSC. (2024, July 8). “Letter dated 3 July 2024 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1988 (2011) addressed to the President of the Security Council”. United Nations Security Council. https://www.longwarjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/n2415600.pdf

UNSC. (n.d.). “Tehrik-e Taliban (TTP)”. United Nations Security Council. https://main.un.org/securitycouncil/en/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/entity/tehrik-e-taliban-pakistan-%28ttp%29?utm_source

Valle, R. (2024, March 24). “Towards a new phase of militancy: Hafiz Gul Bahadur’s overall restructure”. The Khorasan Diary. https://thekhorasandiary.com/en/2024/03/24/towards-a-new-phase-of-militancy-hafiz-gul-bahadurs-overall-restructure

VOA. (2024, December 8). “Can China succeed in mediating between Pakistan and Afghanistan to protect its interests?”. Voice of America. https://www.voachinese.com/a/china-mediating-patch-up-between-pakistan-and-afghanistan-20241207/7890212.html

Wazir, U. D. (2022, April 15). “Seven Pakistani soldiers killed in attack in North Waziristan”. RFE/RL. https://www.rferl.org/a/pakistan-waziristan-soldiers-killed-ttp/31804555.html

Zahid, F. (2015, July 10). “The success and failures of Pakistan’s operation Zarb-e-Azb”. Terrorism Monitor, Jamestown Foundation. https://jamestown.org/program/the-successes-and-failures-of-pakistans-operation-zarb-e-azb/

Zelin, A. (2024, August 6). “Looking for legitimacy: The Taliban’s diplomacy campaign”. The Washington Institute. https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/looking-legitimacy-talibans-diplomacy-campaign